Consider these two examples that reveal the two different meanings we associate the word 'lady' with: Of course she only drinks champagne and wears silk - she is a proper lady! In addition, I have also shown that elevational meaning per se is not deictic, because it does not depend on the speakers (or addressees) location, but simply relational and needs an anchor point, which can be a location that is independent of speaker or addressee. The Jahai multi-term demonstrative system: whats spatial about it? in Demonstratives in Cross-Linguistic Perspective, eds S. Levinson, S. Cutfield, M. Dunn, N. Enfield, and S. Meira (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 361380. An alternative explanation could be that positions further away from the speaker are (almost) unlimited in the sense that there is no clear and unambiguous natural boundary or limit (e.g., if we climb up a mountain we can see even further away). This will cause a psychological change in how people view a word and its meaning. Fig. 57, 145. Lakskij Jazyk: Fonetika I Morfologija [The Lak Language: Phonetics and Morphology]. The basic semantic values that elevational demonstratives encode can be ordered along a hierarchy (UP/DOWN > LEVEL/ACROSS) that reflects cross-linguistic tendencies in the frequency of the respective elevational values. Yonder/away (Ngiyambaa, Buru, Tanacross, Koyukon, and Movima). For example, Sanzhi Dargwa has a general elevational system clearly based on an abstract vertical axis (Forker, 2019). Dr. Richard Nordquist is professor emeritus of rhetoric and English at Georgia Southern University and the author of several university-level grammar and composition textbooks. Cora Locationals and Structured Imagery. Linguist. Deixis in Nlmwa, in Deixis and Demonstratives in Oceanic Languages, ed. Eipo and Andi and have all three types of demonstratives (Tables 2, 5); Manambu has UP and DOWN (Table 8), and Muna has just UP (Table 1). Semantic narrowing is the process by which a word's meaning becomes less generalised (in other words more specific) over time. (ii) Obligatory co-occurrence of demonstrative morphemes with elevational morphemes in a single word-form. However, over the years, the meaning of this word broadened to refer to any type of work or job. Introduction: demonstratives: patterns in diversity, in Demonstratives in Cross-Linguistic Perspective, eds S. C. Levinson, S. Cutfield, M. Dunn, N. Enfield, and S. Meira (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 142. Some examples of amelioration are words such as 'nice', 'pretty' and 'lady'. Bender, A., and Beller, S. (2014). Reesink, G. P. (2000). For example, in Andi (Table 5), only the distal demonstrative roots can attach elevational suffixes. G. P. Reesink (Canberra: Australian National University), 181275. 1 - An example of semantic narrowing is 'hound.'. Be perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan. The elevational demonstrative systems of the 50 surveyed languages have been coded for a number of formal and semantic properties. Pejoration: I must tell you that your kid has been misbehaving - he's got an attitude problem. Post, M. W. (2007). L. Horn (Oxford: Blackwell), 97121. Uphill and downhill in a flat world: the conceptual topography of the Yupno house. Treis, Y. Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia, M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester, B.A., English, State University of New York. Table 4. Let's look at two examples of semantic narrowing: The word 'hound', traditionally was used to refer to any type of dog. Even among the few languages which clearly have topographic elevationals, there are three languages not spoken in the mountains, but in lower hills (Dyirbal), on a flat island (Iaai) and in a flat area of Alaska (Tanacross). Ann Arbor, MI: UMI. A word that previously had a negative meaning develops a positive one. (iii) The global scale, e.g., locations on other continents that are never visible from the location of the speaker. Amelioration elevates a word's meaning over time. Thank you for being so nice to my brother! Ebert, K. (1994). I then discuss metaphorical extensions of elevational demonstratives to non-spatial uses such as temporal and social deixis. Palmer, B. The sense of the word 'terrific' that we still use now - meaning 'excellent' - began to be used later in the 19th century. From a word used to describe something that causes fear, terribly is now an alternative for 'very': The case of the word 'sick' is a more recent example of amelioration. Similarly, 'meat', has also undergone semantic narrowing over the years. What did 'pretty' mean in Middle English? Dadibi, Tok Pisin, English, Po Dage Dabe. In this paper, I have largely ignored the morphological and syntactic properties of elevational demonstratives as well as their use in discourse (e.g., as anaphors or cataphors). Cogn. The term spatial deixis refers to the localization of a figure relative to a ground (object) in terms of (radial) distance categories by means of language (e.g., here vs. there), or in combination with a pointing gesture (Levinson, 2003, p. 65). A Grammar of Tulil. What is an example of semantic reclamation? Linguist. However, research on the spatial category of elevation is just at the beginning and typological studies are lacking so far. . Synthetic: A synthetic sentence is one which is not analytic or contradictory, but which may be true or false depending on the way the world is. A Reference Grammar of Southeastern Tepehuan. This led to the word's meaning to die of hunger. The people who reclaim these words use them in a positive context and in doing this, the word is stripped of its power to disparage the group. 5 Words That Don't Mean What You Think They Mean, The Power of Connotations: Definition and Examples. However, we can escape gravity in the sense that we can change the frame of reference from absolute to intrinsic or relative. What are some examples of semantic change? Ngiyambaa. In the context of this sentence, the word 'sick' means 'corrupt, troubled'. "Semantic Narrowing (Specialization)." This meaning grew more specific until the word 'meat' was only used when relating to one type of food (animal flesh). Amelioration is less common than its opposite - pejoration. As Table 10 shows, the elevational demonstratives that encode relative proximity and middle distance are morphologically complex in contrast to the elevational demonstratives that encode relative distance. Five of the surveyed languages are spoken in lower hills (in general lower than 500 m above sea level), and seven languages on flat territory. Semantic change is the process in which the meaning of a word changes over time. Demonstratives in the Blagar of Dolap, in Papers in Papuan Linguistics, ed. The metaphor TIME AS SPACE across languages. The elevational demonstrative morphemes themselves cannot be clearly separated further and no unambiguous part with purely elevational meaning can be identified. Adelaar, W. (2019). Broadening is the opposite. Only when the referent is potentially visible (i.e., within the minimal local and larger local domain) the relevant items encode elevational and riverine meanings. Lexical semantics is the analysis of word meaning. And what is more relevant for the topic of this paper, the vertical axis is the only of the three axes that is encoded by demonstratives. Metaphors may also affect what certain words are associated with. A man is a butterfly. Semantics is/refers to the study of the meaning of words, Semantic change is the term given to how the meanings of words can change over time. In practice, locations above the speaker and above the addressee during a conversation largely coincide. Among the languages examined in this paper, Movima is particularly rich in demonstratives with unusual meanings such as temporary possession or standing position (Haude, 2006, pp. Set individual study goals and earn points reaching them. In a number of languages, the elevational demonstratives are clearly diachronically complex, but synchronically the elevational part cannot be separated or is not treated as a bound root, affix, or clitic. This word was originally used to refer to someone's pose or posture. Another important finding of this study concerns the metaphorical extension of spatial elevational demonstrative meanings to the domain of time: the future is metaphorically located higher than the deictic center, and the past below. For instance, as (25) shows, in Galo we have UP = north, DOWN = south, and LEVEL = east or west. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. 188189). Distance, direction, and relevance: how to choose and use a demonstrative in Manambu. Whitby, C. (1990). Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag. "Semantic Narrowing (Specialization)." Which sentence DOESN'T use an ameliorated word? Canberra: Australian National University. The projection can be explained by the fact that due to their upright position human beings have to move the head downward in order to look at proximal items whereas the gaze goes upward in order to look at distal items (see Bickel (1997 and references therein). The structure of Buru demonstratives (Grimes, 1991, p. 168). Below are two examples of semantic broadening: The word, 'business' originally was only used to refer to being busy. LEXICAL SEMANTICS: Examples: 1. . Copyright 2020 Forker. For example, in Manambu (Ndu, Sepik, Papua New Guinea), three person-based deictic stems take gender, number and the current relevance suffix, followed by the topographic and general elevational morphemes (Table 8). The term 'semantic change' refers to how the meaning of words changes over time. Holton (2019), who discusses the Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Den languages spoken in the Artic, which is generally rather flat, notes that even though the Alaska territory includes some of the highest mountains in North America, the speakers of Na-Den languages, which have elevational demonstrative, do not live in the mountains. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/semantic-narrowing-specialization-1692083. Structure of Manambu demonstratives (Aikhenvald, 2015). For example, the word 'cool' was originally used in the context of jazz music but as the popularity of jazz increased, the word became associated with anything trendy. Subsequently, I examine the relationship between elevational meaning and distance contrasts of demonstratives and further semantic extensions of elevationals to indicate cardinal directions, social hierarchies, and temporal meanings. Elevational demonstratives that are characterized as topographic in grammars can be used at the local scale such as within a house or close by a house or, with respect to a tree. 8486; Heeschen, 1998, p. 143). Similarly, by means of the second topographic system of Yakkha the uphill and downhill elevationals can be mapped onto the human body and teeth are then referred to as uphill, i.e., upper teeth and downhill lower teeth irrespectively of their actual position (even when a person is not in the canonical upright position). Amelioration is less common than the opposite historical process, called pejoration . (1997). (1982). Widening/Extension => range of meanings of a word increases so that the word can be used in more contexts than were appropriate before the change -dog =>1) specific powerful breed of dog => all breeds or races of dog Utrecht: LOT. Narrowing can also be referred to as semantic specialisation or semantic restriction. van den Berg, R. (1989/2013). With respect to the languages of this paper, this claim is only partially confirmed. You might be surprised to know that there are many words that we use on a daily basis that have been ameliorated. Just like any other type of semantic change, improvement is an important process in the development of language. For example, if I say . Another important factor to keep in mind when investigating the meaning of elevational demonstratives is scale or domain of use. As said in the introduction, elevation refers to the expression of a location of a figure with respect to the ground on the vertical axis.1 The three axes and planes through the human body provide the ground for three pairs of (linguistic) concepts, namely UP/DOWN, BACK/FRONT, and LEFT/RIGHT (Figure 1). https://www.thoughtco.com/semantic-narrowing-specialization-1692083 (accessed May 1, 2023). 287295). Let me show you an example to make this a little more concrete. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. Other languages are Makalero, Bantawa, Baskeet, and Sougb. The meaning of the word changed, referring to someone's way of thinking instead. doi: 10.3758/bf03205000. What are the major types of semantic change? The deictic center is usually egocentric, i.e., the speakers location serves as the ground, but can also shift depending on the speech situation. A Grammar of Galo. For instance, the elevationals of Galo are translated as given in (16) (Post, 2007, pp. Palmer, B., Lum, J. T. S., Schlossberg, J., and Gaby, A. R. (2017). Masters thesis, University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. Ma Manda (FinisterreHuon), has a three-level contrast in elevation (DOWN/UP/LEVEL), in contrast to Tulil, which has only terms for UP and DOWN, co-expressed with distance such that we arrive at six items (Pennington, 2016, pp. What is the difference between narrowing and broadening? Also called melioration or elevation . How many major types of semantic change are there? I tentatively conclude that languages spoken in similar topographic environments do not tend to have similar systems of elevational demonstratives if they belong to different language families. Typol. In the above sentence, the word 'attitude', which used to simply refer to a person's position and state of mind, is now associated with negative behaviour. It is the process in which the word's meaning changes from negative to positive over time. According to the survey in Diessel (2013), which included 234 languages, demonstratives are distance-neutral or express up to five distance contrasts (i.e., five positions that differ in terms of distance from the deictic center). Sometimes this process is referred to as semantic melioration or semantic elevation. This can include a word becoming taboo, or being linked with a taboo within the culture. Languages with morphologically complex elevational demonstratives in which the elevational meaning is expressed by bound roots or affixes and regularly combines with demonstrative stems are Blagar, Tauya, Tanacross (Table 4), Koyukon, Andi (Table 5), Manambu (Table 8), Ngiyambaa (7), and Dyirbal (10). The word 'terrific' comes from the Latin word 'terrificus' which meant 'causing terror or fear, frightful'. EXAMPLES: Elephants are not animals. Elevation and the relative frame of reference. My brother is tall. Table 5. From Space to Time: Temporal Adverbials in the Worlds Languages. What are two examples of semantic narrowing? As I already explained, it is sound to expect the absolute use to be the default such that the interpretation of down there in (17) is normally understood in relation to the position of the speaker and not some other ground object because of gravity. I do not have an explanation for the third demonstrative and the grammar provides only one example (27), in which its meaning seems to correspond to the meaning of the first and is thus in accordance with the DOWN = BACK = PAST schema. Anthropol. According to Ozanne-Rivierre (2004, p. 135), there are other Austronesian languages such as Taba with the same temporal extension DOWN = PAST. Doctoral dissertation, Australian National University, Canberra. The elevational values in both subsets are obligatorily co-expressed with the deictic meaning DISTAL. 3, eds G. Hyslop, S. Morey, and M. W. Post (Delhi: Foundation Books), 137154. Cogn. doi: 10.1353/anl.2015.0003. Frames of reference in vision and language: where is above? Narrowing is commonly caused by extralinguistic factors, These are defined as factors that occur outside the system of the language. Utrecht: LOT. Psychological factors are factors that affect how people view a word and its meaning. By contrast, in Dyirbal they can also be added to verbs to form verbs of motion (Dixon, 1972, pp. Create beautiful notes faster than ever before. Lerne mit deinen Freunden und bleibe auf dem richtigen Kurs mit deinen persnlichen Lernstatistiken. This example sentence uses the word 'sick' in the sense of 'mentally unwell, ill'. Think of the word 'nice' as an example of amelioration. Some systems of spatial deixis in Papuan languages, in Here and There: Cross-Linguistic Studies on Deixis and Demonstration, eds J. Weissenborn and W. Klein (Amsterdam: Benjamins), 81110. However, by the 1800s, the process of amelioration had changed this, and the word came to mean that someone was kind and thoughtful. Yale does not formally distinguish between adnominal and adverbial elevational demonstratives (and the author of the grammar does not explicitly mention a pronominal or identificational use). Languages with elevational demonstratives are found in flat, hilly, and mountainous regions, and they are a characteristic feature of a few language families worldwide (East Caucasian, Eskimo-Aleut, Sino-Tibetan, Timor-Alor-Pantar, Nuclear Trans New Guinea, and Omotic). ThoughtCo. The first example comes from Tidore (North Halmahera), in which the elevational with the meaning UP is used to refer to locations and movements in the direction of the sultans palace even though the palace is located rather low.18 van Staden (2018) calls this usage royal up and shows that in certain cases it includes de facto downward movement. By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. Later the word 'hlafweard' shortened - first it became 'hlaford' and then by the 13th century it was simply 'lord'. The last context (iv) has several subtypes (presentative, identifier, localizer, and copular demonstratives, see Killian, unpublished for the full typology, explanations and examples). Casad, E. H. (1982). 1 - 'Dizzy' is an example of amelioration. 6. salary Nowadays, the word 'lady' has kept its 13th-century meaning but it is also used to describe any woman. Other examples of specialization are deer, which originally had the general meaning 'animal,' girl, which meant originally 'a young person,' and meat, whose original meaning was 'food.'" (Sol Steinmetz, Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meanings. In many other languages there are some restrictions. Which is an example of a potential psychological factor? Tulil (Taulil-Butam) has three morphologically complex demonstrative stems with elevational meaning that can be used for temporal expression (Meng, 2018, pp. Seyoum, M. (2008). (2020, August 27). For example, the original meaning of ambassador was . doi: 10.1515/9783110852394-016. Second, the descriptions lack a solid proof of the absolute frame of reference as opposed to the relative or intrinsic frame. Over time, as jazz music grew in popularity, the word started to be used in other contexts. The data for this paper mainly come from grammatical descriptions of some 50 languages with elevational demonstratives from a range of different language families across the globe. Changes in the referents (what is being referred to), Disguising language / misnomers (i.e. As stated in the introduction, I focus on adnominal, spatial adverbial, and pronominal elevational demonstratives. This is because when used as slang, they gain a new, positive, meaning and are associated with the word, 'cool'. Demonstratives: a cross-linguistic typology. Amelioration is a term that refers to when a word acquires a more positive meaning over time. Lang. Because of this (usual) unambiguity of locations along the vertical axis, the anchor point of an observer can shift without difficulty (we will see below what repercussions this has for elevational demonstratives).
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